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20 Surprising Facts About How Societies Have Viewed and Defined Masculinity and Femininity

One intriguing fact about being a student of world cultures is that, I learn something new every day. Masculinity and femininity are complex, culturally constructed concepts that vary across societies. In many traditional societies, masculinity is often associated with traits such as strength, assertiveness, and independence, reflecting a historical emphasis on men as providers and protectors. Conversely, femininity is linked to qualities like nurturing, empathy, and submissiveness, aligning with traditional gender roles as caregivers and homemakers.

Join me in unraveling the historical threads that have woven the intricate fabric that defines masculinity and femininity. In our journey together we will navigate through cultural landscapes, dissecting the norms, beliefs, and expectations that have sculpted the very essence of masculinity and femininity. This article is not just a chronicle of 20 surprising facts about how societies have viewed and defined masculinity and femininity.

1. Ancient Egypt’s Gender Equality

Nefertiti. Image by from

In ancient Egypt, women enjoyed privileges unmatched in other ancient civilizations, with legal rights and freedoms that enabled them to inherit wealth, own property, engage in business, and hold respected positions. Both men and women could aspire to scholarly, religious, political, and even military roles under the pharaohs’ surprisingly progressive system.

For example, women like Hatshepsut and Nefertiti ruled as prominent pharaohs alongside their male counterparts during Egypt鈥檚 early history. Many wealthy or middle-class women engaged in trade, ordered the labour of household servants and slaves and bequeathed valuable goods like jewelry to their daughters as inherited family wealth.

2.  Sparta’s Fit Mothers

Image by Caeciliusinhorto  from

Spartan women underwent athletic training on par with men, keeping their bodies strong through wrestling, gymnastics, running, throwing, and dancing from a young age. This intensive fitness regime stemmed from a belief that healthy, vigorous mothers were crucial to bearing hardy Spartan troops to defend their homeland from enemies like Athens during frequent wars. Physical prowess was ingrained in Spartan culture as key to not just preserving lives but their entire political system and way of life. Even the mother of the legendary Spartan king Leonidas, Queen Gorgo herself reportedly trained to develop peak physical condition.

3. Samurai Women were as Deadly as their Male Counterparts

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Some exceptional women in feudal Japan broke the stern gender barriers of their era by training as samurai warriors alongside men in the martial skills of that fabled class. Mastering the katana sword as well as archery, spear-play and unarmed combat, these fierce femmes were known as “Onna-Bugeisha” or 鈥渨omen warriors.鈥�

Though rare, their specialized skills left them fully capable of defending their families, land, lords and honor when the men were called away for months or years to fight distant battles. During times of relative peace from the 12th to 19th century, a few women heeded the call of Bushido just as their male counterparts did by devoting themselves to the way of the warrior as a matter of duty and pride in excelling in every discipline through a lifetime of practice and refined technique.

4.  Native American Two-Spirit

Within many Native American tribes, honored roles existed for 鈥淭wo-Spirit鈥� people who blended masculine and feminine qualities and defied the strict gender divisions held by European colonists in particular. Rather than facing discrimination, they were seen by their communities as especially blessed for their ability to transcend and unite the conventional earthly concepts of male and female.

As such, Two-Spirits often became visionaries, healers, mediators and guides among the people. They were called upon for counsel to tribal balance, health and prosperity through harmony between men and women. Beyond their practical roles, they held an exalted place in Native cosmology and identity as living embodiments of mankind鈥檚 dual spiritual nature.

5. Shield Maidens of Valhalla: the Female Warriors of the Vikings

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Norse tales and legends tell of the Valkyries, a host of powerful, uncanny female warriors so fierce, skilled, and lethal with spear, axe and sword that their commander, the one-eyed god Odin, would directly dispatch them to mortal battlefields. There in the carnage and din of warfare, they decided slain warriors’ fates. Choosing which fighters perished in glorious combat earned a chosen hero鈥檚 welcome in Valhalla’s halls for endless feasting, ale and storytelling.

Those they did not designate for Valhalla’s reward could flee the field of slaughter covered in dishonorable shame. This mythic image resonated through real Viking shield maidens who sometimes joined raiding parties and have emerged as fierce warrior remains in recent archaeological finds. The Valkyries thus embody the double-edged Norse ideal of validating honor in battle and embracing mortality’s inevitable doom through supernatural women playing the fateful role of “Choosers of the Slain.”

6.  The Renaissance Man and Woman

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The exemplary 鈥淩enaissance Man鈥� was envisioned as a scholarly polymath whose excellence spanned diverse fields, challenging stereotypes that men must channel all energy into developing soldierly might and hardened emotional steel. Some bold Renaissance women donned men鈥檚 garb to gain access as students into male spheres like universities, anatomy lectures and artisan guilds’ apprenticeships which were strictly forbidden to females.

By circumstance or rare sympathy, authorities permitted a few remarkably gifted Renaissance women like Sofonisba Anguissola to train among great male masters of painting, sculpture and poetry on sheer merit despite harsh customary opposition against female participation in such realms.

7. Victorian Gender Stereotypes

The Victorian era under Britain’s long-reigning monarch Queen Victoria spelled swift disaster for generations of women鈥檚 rights after more fluid eras like the Renaissance. Strict gender spheres were once again brutally enforced under Victoria鈥檚 uncompromising Christian morality throughout an empire that heavily influenced America and Europe.

Iconized as the feminine model of virtue, Queen Victoria popularized the notion that women were sentimental, delicate, dutifully maternal figures requiring protection by firmly masculine men filling all leadership roles in work and society.

Middle and upper-class Victorian girls were conditioned from early childhood into an extremely restricted ideal of womanhood devoted selflessly, and silently to raising children, running households, presenting gentle beauty and purity, and obeying the authoritarian decisions made exclusively by men over every facet of property, law, commerce, politics and money that granted all freedoms.

8. Geisha Tradition in Japan: trained Femininity

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In traditional Japanese culture, geishas represented the epitome of Japanese femininity – highly skilled in various classical arts like dance, music, poetry, and clever conversation. Their extensive training began in childhood and challenged stereotypes of passive, subordinate womanhood. Geishas moved with dignity and subtle grace rather than sudden movements. Their aesthetic allurement contained elements of eroticism but geishas were not concubines – they were first and foremost entertainers. The mysteries surrounding the exclusive world of the geisha continue to captivate people globally. 

9.  The Male form was revered in Ancient Greek Gymnasiums

In ancient Greece, athletic training and competition were highly important for free-born males. Men exercised and competed against each other fully nude in the gymnasium, placing the male physique firmly on display. The Greeks emphasized the beauty of the naked male body and viewed sports as a celebration of health, strength, and masculinity. Paintings and sculptures from the era clearly illustrate well-developed Greek male bodies. Sports and athleticism were seen as noble masculine endeavors, and the gymnasium itself emerged as an important social institution promoting socialization, community, and pride.

10.  In Ancient China a Small foot was the Epitome of Femininity

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In imperial China, foot binding was a widespread practice that aimed to alter the shape and size of women’s feet, forcing them to be tiny and arched. It was seen as an enhancement of feminine beauty yet had profoundly disabling effects. Young girls, some as young as 5 years old, underwent the painful process of having their toes curled under and feet bound tightly with bandages so that after years of suffering, they would have tiny “golden lotus” feet. The custom led to lifelong disabilities, restricted mobility, and pain for generations of Chinese women. Though seen as beautiful, it severely damaged their health.

11.  Sworn Virgins in Albanian Culture

In the patriarchal Kanun culture of northern Albania, families without male heirs would select a daughter to live as a man in society, entering a vow of celibacy and masculinity. These “sworn virgins” could then assume male roles and privileges – serving as heads of households, voting in elections, herding livestock, and bearing arms – much like ordinary men. They dressed, worked, smoked, carried weapons, and were otherwise treated as men. This centuries-old tradition enabled women to preserve families lacking sons but required renouncing sexuality and typical female duties like marriage and childbearing. 

12.  The 鈥渘on-threatening鈥� Eunuch Tradition 

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In various ancient societies, castrated males occupied unique social and political roles. Known as eunuchs, they had originally servile functions but eventually rose to prestigious positions managing dynastic affairs in royal courts from China to the Byzantine Empire. Eunuchs‘ inability to produce offspring meant they could be trusted guardians of harems as well as close advisors to rulers without threatening dynastic power. While some non-castrated men became eunuchs voluntarily, most boys were castrated before puberty and then trained extensively for high-ranking service. Neither fully male nor female, eunuchs formed a third gender in traditional state bureaucracies.

13.  The Greek Women of Amazons Mythology

The mythology of the ancient Greeks contained stories of the Amazons – a legendary race of warrior women who were believed to live apart from men. Brave, daring, and superior in combat, they challenged traditional expectations for Greek women. According to legends, Amazons cut off one breast so as to improve their archery skills and military prowess, symbolizing rejection of traditional motherhood roles.

Tales describe their battles against male Greek heroes, representing victory of civilization over wilderness as the Greeks sought to suppress strong female power. Though a mythical folklore trope, the concept of bold, aggressive Amazons captured the Greek imagination.

14.  Muxe in Zapotec Culture 

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In the indigenous Zapotec culture of Oaxaca state in southern Mexico, a third gender category exists known as “muxe” – individuals assigned male at birth but who adopt traditional female roles. Muxes may dress in women’s clothing, adopt mannerisms and occupations associated with women, and assist their mothers in housework and business marketplace vending.

Muxes are integrated into and accepted within Zapotec communities, where they are seen as embodying elements of both male and female identities. Most remain single and childless. The muxe tradition in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec highlights more fluid conceptualizations of gender identity predating Spanish colonization.

15.  The Hijra Community in South Asia

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The Hijra community in South Asia, recognized as a third gender, challenges binary gender norms and has a unique cultural history. Numbering over 4.2 million in India and Pakistan alone, the Hijra are physiological males who adopt feminine gender expression, often wearing saris and makeup. Hijra traces their lineage to antiquity, with mentions in the Kama Sutra and roles in Mughal courts. Many live in communal households led by a guru.

Widely respected in pre-colonial times as bringers of luck, the British Raj marginalized Hijra in the 1800s with anti-transvestite laws. Still, Indian law today legally recognizes Hijra as a third gender. Hijra often make a living by blessing newborns or dancing at ceremonies, though discrimination leads many to sex work and high HIV rates. Efforts grow to integrate Hijra into society and end stigmatization.

16.  Third Gender in Native Hawaiian Culture

Traditional Native Hawaiian culture acknowledges the existence of the “m膩h奴,” individuals embodying both masculine and feminine qualities. M膩h奴 were integral members of ancient Hawaiian society, valued as teachers, healers, and caretakers due to their balance of male and female energies. They passed oral traditions and history between generations.

Western colonizers nearly erased mention of m膩h奴. However, a cultural renaissance starting in the 1970s led to renewed pride. Scholar now shows m膩h奴 status was fluid in traditional k膩naka maoli culture. Boys demonstrating feminine-typical interests or traits often transitioned to m膩h奴. Accepted without stigma, they undertook roles like hula dancing forbidden to men.

17.  The Victorian Dandy

The Victorian era also saw the rise of the dandy, a man who rejected traditional masculinity by focusing on fashion, refinement, and aesthetics. Dandies outraged 19th-century gender norms by embracing intricate outfits with bright colors, expensive fabrics like silk and velvet, jewelry, scarves, and gleaming boots often reserved for women. Their fastidious attention to grooming also defied masculine ideals. Leisure and artistic pursuits over business and sport scandalized too.

Modeling French aristocratic refinement, the purposefully androgynous style announced education and status, not gender deviance. Still, conservative critics saw sexual instability, labeling dandies as effeminate and inferior. While the 20th century relegated dandyism to subcultures, the Victorian dandy proved clothing expressed identity beyond crude masculinity. Their legacy survives in gender-bending musicians like Prince or Little Richard.     

18.  Roman Effeminate Men

Emperor Augustus. , Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In ancient Rome, effeminate or “womanly” qualities among men signified peacefulness, education, and wisdom. Elite thinkers idealized a blend of masculine and feminine traits they called humanitas. Effeminate men seemed less warlike while cultured pursuits like philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry indicated learnedness and non-toxic civil masculinity. As such, a bit of feminine “softness” did not impugn Roman manhood. Gender presentation mattered less than virtuous character.

Roman leaders evinced some effeminacy too. The emperor Augustus endured mockery for his obsessive hairstyling, light voice, and aversion to manly vices like drinking. The poetry critic Gaius Maecenas helped rule Rome while wearing makeup, jewelry, and voluminous robes. Though later Christian notions equated feminine men with weakness, Romans earlier often construed it as enlightenment.

19.  The Yanomami Gender Roles

The Yanomami people in the Amazon rainforest have fluid gender roles, where individuals can transition between masculine and feminine roles throughout their lives. Yanomami gender exists on a spectrum without firm categories. Biological males, especially 鈥渦nokai鈥� who demonstrate domestic interests from young ages, may undertake childcare, cooking other female tasks absent social sanction. With community acceptance, unokai males may even take husbands later on.

Meanwhile, girls who display stereotypically masculine childhood behavior like aggressiveness may grow into male-typical warrior or political leadership roles after proving themselves through successful raids or duels. For the Yanomami, nearly any gender can perform nearly any role adequately. Individuals move fluidly across gender lines absent the rigid binaries or biological determinism prevalent in Western culture.

20. A Fluid Concept of Masculinity and Femininity Among the Hopi

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In the Hopi tribe, the terms used for genders did not correlate directly to biological sex but rather reflected a balance of feminine and masculine occupations that each person adopted. Specifically, the Hopi recognized four distinct genders that were defined by the type of work and social roles an individual fulfilled, independent of their anatomy at birth.

For example, while a biological male could decide to devote themselves to stereotypically female tasks like weaving and basketmaking, they would be considered a different gender than a male who engaged in hunting or warfare. The Hopi tribe’s more expansive set of linguistic gender markers ultimately arose from a cultural system oriented around gender expression through activities rather than something inborn and fixed

The journey through the many facets of masculinity and femininity unveils a rich mosaic of surprises. From ancient civilizations to modern societies, these definitions have shaped and reshaped, guided by cultural winds. From the above exploration a timeless dance between tradition and progress unveils. Each revelation sparks curiosity, challenging preconceptions and illuminating the interconnected cultures that weave our collective understanding. The dynamics of gender have traversed time leaving an indelible mark on human consciousness.